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C++ Tutorial

C++ is a powerful and versatile programming language that can be used to create applications, games, operating systems, embedded systems, and more. C++ is an extension of the C language, with additional features such as object-oriented programming, templates, exceptions, and smart pointers. C++ is one of the most widely used languages in the world, and has influenced many other languages such as Java, C#, and Python.

In this tutorial, you will learn the basics of C++ and how to write your own programs using this language. You will also learn some of the advanced topics of C++, such as inheritance, polymorphism, abstract classes, and STL. This tutorial assumes that you have some prior knowledge of C or another programming language, but you don't need to be an expert to follow along.

We hope that this tutorial will help you learn C++ in a fun and easy way. Happy coding! 😊

Introduction​

C++ is a general-purpose programming language that supports multiple paradigms such as procedural, object-oriented, generic, and functional programming. It was created by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in 1979 as an extension of the C language, which he called "C with Classes". He later renamed it to "C++" in 1983, signifying the increment operator ++ as a metaphor for the language's evolution.

C++ inherits most of the syntax and features of C, such as low-level memory management, pointers, arrays, structs, and unions. However, it also adds new features that make it more expressive, flexible, and powerful than C, such as:

  • Classes: user-defined types that encapsulate data and behavior
  • Inheritance: a mechanism for creating new classes from existing ones
  • Polymorphism: a feature that allows different objects to respond differently to the same message
  • Templates: a technique for writing generic code that works with different types
  • Exceptions: a way of handling errors and abnormal situations
  • Standard Template Library (STL): a collection of ready-to-use containers, algorithms, and iterators

C++ is also compatible with C code, meaning that you can use existing C libraries and functions in your C++ programs. However, C++ is not a strict superset of C, meaning that some valid C code may not compile or run correctly in C++. For example,

  • Some keywords are reserved in C++ but not in C (e.g., class, template)
  • Some operators have different meanings or precedences in C++ than in C (e.g.,

    )

  • Some features are deprecated or removed in C++ but still valid in C (e.g., implicit conversions from void* to other pointer types)

C++ is widely used for developing software systems that require high performance, reliability, and portability. Some examples of applications written in C++ are:

  • Operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux)
  • Web browsers (e.g., Chrome, Firefox)
  • Games (e.g., World of Warcraft, Call of Duty)
  • Databases (e.g., MySQL, MongoDB)
  • Graphics engines (e.g., OpenGL, DirectX)
  • Machine learning frameworks (e.g., TensorFlow, PyTorch)

C++ is also one of the most popular programming languages in the world, ranking among the top 10 in various surveys and indices (e.g., TIOBE, Stack Overflow, GitHub).

History of C++​

C++ has a long and rich history that spans over four decades. Here is a brief timeline of some of the major milestones and events in the evolution of C++:

  • 1979: C with Classes first implemented by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs
  • 1982: C with Classes reference manual published
  • 1983: C with Classes renamed to C++
  • 1985: The first edition of The C++ Programming Language by Bjarne Stroustrup published
  • 1989: The first commercial release of C++ (Cfront 2.0) by AT&T
  • 1991: The Annotated C++ Reference Manual by Margaret Ellis and Bjarne Stroustrup published
  • 1998: The first ISO/IEC standard for C++ (ISO/IEC 14882:1998) published
  • 2003: The first revision of the C++ standard (ISO/IEC 14882:2003) published
  • 2011: The second revision of the C++ standard (ISO/IEC 14882:2011), also known as C++11, published
  • 2014: The third revision of the C++ standard (ISO/IEC 14882:2014), also known as C++14, published
  • 2017: The fourth revision of the C++ standard (ISO/IEC 14882:2017), also known as C++17, published
  • 2020: The fifth revision of the C++ standard (ISO/IEC 14882:2020), also known as C++20, published

Each revision of the C++ standard introduces new features and improvements to the language and the library. Some of the notable features added in each revision are:

  • C++11: auto, decltype, nullptr, constexpr, range-based for loop, lambda expressions, move semantics, smart pointers, initializer lists, variadic templates, static assertions, type traits, etc.
  • C++14: generic lambdas, variable templates, relaxed constexpr, binary literals, digit separators, etc.
  • C++17: structured bindings, if constexpr, fold expressions, inline variables, std::optional, std::variant, std::any, std::string_view, etc.
  • C++20: concepts, ranges, modules, coroutines, designated initializers, three-way comparison operator (<=>), std::span, std::format, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of C++​

Like any programming language, C++ has its own strengths and weaknesses. Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of using C++:

Advantages​

  • Performance: C++ is one of the fastest programming languages, thanks to its low-level features and direct access to hardware resources. It allows you to write code that is close to the machine level, optimizing memory usage and execution speed. It also supports inline assembly, allowing you to use processor-specific instructions for critical tasks.
  • Portability: C++ is a cross-platform language, meaning that you can write code that can run on different operating systems and architectures with minimal or no changes. It also supports multiple compilation models, such as ahead-of-time (AOT), just-in-time (JIT), and hybrid compilation.
  • Flexibility: C++ is a multi-paradigm language, meaning that you can use different programming styles and techniques to solve different problems. It supports procedural, object-oriented, generic, and functional programming paradigms. It also allows you to mix and match features from different paradigms, creating your own hybrid solutions.
  • Expressiveness: C++ is a rich and expressive language, meaning that you can write code that is concise, clear, and elegant. It provides many features that enable you to write high-level abstractions without sacrificing performance or control. It also supports operator overloading, allowing you to define custom semantics for existing operators.
  • Compatibility: C++ is compatible with C code, meaning that you can use existing C libraries and functions in your C++ programs. It also supports interoperability with other languages, such as Java, Python, and .NET languages. You can use foreign function interfaces (FFI), such as JNI, ctypes, and SWIG, to call functions written in other languages from your C++ code.

Disadvantages​

  • Complexity: C++ is a complex language, meaning that it has many features and rules that can be hard to learn and master. It also has many pitfalls and traps that

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can lead to bugs and errors. It also has many legacy features and quirks that are maintained for backward compatibility, but may not be relevant or useful for modern programming.

  • Memory management: C++ requires manual memory management, meaning that you have to allocate and deallocate memory for your objects and data structures. It also allows you to manipulate raw memory using pointers and references, which can be dangerous and error-prone. You have to be careful about memory leaks, dangling pointers, buffer overflows, and other memory-related issues.

  • Compilation time: C++ has a long compilation time, meaning that it takes a lot of time and resources to compile and link your code. It also requires a separate compilation step for each source file, which can slow down the development process. You have to use preprocessor directives, header files, and forward declarations to avoid multiple definitions and circular dependencies.

  • Debugging: C++ is hard to debug, meaning that it is difficult to find and fix errors and bugs in your code. It also has limited support for runtime error checking and exception handling, which can make your program crash or behave unpredictably. You have to use external tools, such as debuggers, profilers, and static analyzers, to inspect and improve your code quality.